José G. Vargas Hernández
University Center for Economic and Managerial
Sciences,
University of Guadalajara, México
E-mail: jvargas2006@gmail.com
Mtra. Salustia Teresa Cano Ibarra
Instituto Tecnológico de Celaya, México
E-mail: teresa.cano@itcelaya.edu.mx
Submission: 02/04/2016
Revision: 30/04/2016
Accept: 06/05/2016
ABSTRACT
The objective of this paper is to explain through
the agency theory and theory of resources and capacities as is the process of
assessment in higher education institutions. The actors that are involved in
the decision-making and the use that is giving the resources derived from repeatedly
to practices that opportunistic diminishing the value that is given to the
evaluation, in addition to the decrease in team work. A model is presented to measure the
perception of service quality by students of the Technological Institute of
Celaya, as part of the system of quality control, based on the theoretical
support of several authors who have developed this topic (SERVQUAL and SERPERF
) an instrument adapted to the student area of the institution called
SERQUALITC is generated. The paper presents the areas or departments to assess
and the convenient size, the number of items used by size and Likert scale, the
validation study instrument is mentioned. Finally, it is presented the model
that poses a global vision of quality measurement process including corrective
action services that enable continuous improvement.
Keywords: Evaluation of Institutions of Higher education;
Quality of service; Technological Institute of Celaya; university governance
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of organization is also considered synonymous
with business, so that it can be said about a variety of types of organizations
including educational institutions. Although each one of these differ from the
purposes for which they exist, the members who compose and interests they serve.
There are also points of convergence. Higher education institutions (HEI) as
well as other organizations are guided by human action, have a culture of their
own and are geared to meet the objectives.
Given the new scenarios of competition among educational
institutions there is a need to incorporate evaluation as a linked element to
the loss of confidence of the State with regard to the social function of the
HEIs putting at the center of the debate the quality of education they offer.
That is when assessment policies arise while funding is enshrined in this
process.
Understand how the HEIs function, requires an
organizational analysis, also explains how implementing strategies to maintain
educational quality. The agency theory can reflect on the governance of higher
education institutions and how it operates in the management and performance
that is given to the institution. Governance means the relationship between
several participants to manage and evaluate the performance of institutions.
Moreover, the theory based on the resources and capabilities is linked to
agency theory and both help to understand how senior managers or directors
exercise decision-making, in this particular case, the use of resources to
maintain and position the HEIs as successful organizations in the field of
education.
2. BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM
According to Fernandez (2005) from the national crisis in
economic matters there is a restriction of public funding for the social
sectors, including the universities. The demand generated a strong
diversification of university and non-university HEIs. During the 1990s it was
generated in most of the Latin American concerns over the issue of university
quality, so they were creating agencies for evaluation and accreditation.
In the agency theory alluded to corporate governance. In
this case, it speaks of university governance, which according to Casanova and
Rodriguez (1999) provides descriptive and analytical ability to integrate the
variety of processes that are articulated in the management exercise of the
university (p. 15). In other words, it covers the relationships between the
different actors and agents that influence the decisions that they drive to the
institutions.
The agents that make university governance in the HEIs
are operating strategies to have quality in each of their activities, and at
the same time continue to get funding. The success that have agents in
implementing strategies will be determined by the ability of these possess when
designing the organizational structure, evaluate the performance of staff, and
the consolidation of the culture of the organization. Sander (1989)
systematized four criteria that reflect the historical development of
educational administration, and explicitly illustrate the great influence of
the currents arising from business management in practice and analysis of
education:
A.
Profitability, nourished by
so-called scientific management.
B.
Performance based on the
current human relationships.
C.
Adaptability, founded in
the current organizational development
D.
Relevance, which is related
to the social sciences and cultural
The changes generated in the HEIs, such as educational
expansion, diversification of institutions and overcrowding, highlight the
introduction of the issues of evaluation and quality improvement. Alongside,
this requires managers to recognize the institution strategic management as a
measure which will facilitate managing the use of the physical and human
resources to achieve its objectives.
The fact of the multiplication of interventions in the
forms of financing, accreditation, certification and evaluation is accompanied
by the creation of new specialized fields of planning and development
associated to the mission, vision, transparency and accountability. The
assessment in higher education is directly linked to the achievement of
results, so that their performance is associated with federal and state rules
prohibiting, encouraging or rewarding certain behaviors and organizational
measures.
According to Vargas, Guerra and Bojorquez (2014) for the
implementation of the strategy, managers should consider the organizational
structure, which determines how the objectives are set and how resources are
allocated. Grouping tasks and functions as well as assigning authority and
responsibility are elements that constitute the organizational structure.
Another consideration that must be made is how they monitor and evaluate
assigned activities. In that sense we speak of a strategic control system that
lets know if the objectives are met.
From another angle, organizational culture is defined as
the set of values, beliefs and shared by people and groups that make up a
company that controls the way in which these interact with each other and with
customer’s attitudes (VARGAS, et al. p. 173). In strategic planning the key
elements that contribute to the generation of that culture are the mission,
vision and values. In the case of higher education institutions competing with
one industry, education, the emphasis is on the quality and efficiency that
give each of their services: teaching, research, extension and binding and be
constantly innovating and have a positive attitude to the candidates and the
academic community, achieving a competitive advantage.
At first, evaluation focused students, after the program,
up to the institutional assessment, that according to Martínez (2010) aims to
provide rigorous, valid, reliable and evaluative information about an
institution or educational program to enable those responsible to take
appropriate decisions regarding their maintenance, removal or improvement,
increase awareness of the main problems, mobilize collective awareness about
important issues, identify areas of inefficiency and assess the impact of
certain decisions or policies.
In a brief tour of how emerge assessment policies in
higher education, Villaseñor (2003) tells us that three points are identified.
The first one (1990-1996) is associated with the implementation of policy
evaluation stage that was linked to academic quality in terms of predefined
results and performance of the institutions. The role played by the State is as
evaluator and remote monitoring.
A second point is associated to strengthen policy
evaluation (1996-2000), where there is a more accurate notion and concept of
academic quality. There is a tendency to quality assurance, although still in
quantitative terms, as they begin to request proof of quality also happens to
be the state auditor evaluator. According to Villaseñor (2003) the social role
of evaluation-accreditation at the end of the decade was reinforced to be a
more effective tool to transform higher education institutions in organizations
serving the knowledge economy (p. 28). All these changes have generated greater
competitiveness among stakeholders, as individuals seek to maximize their
personal benefit.
The third moment of the assessment is linked to policies
of quality assurance (2000-2002). The starting point is the planning directed
to operating rules and supervision of the Ministry of Public Education (Secretaría
de Educación Pública, SEP), policies focus mainly on Institutional
Strengthening Integral Program (PIFI) in that becomes a measure for obtaining
funding through the revision of consolidation of academic bodies, updating the
plans and curricula, retention, graduating and the tracking rates of graduates
among others.
That said Ibarra (2009) notes that the evaluation system
increases the drivability and government control over institutions, academics
and students. The shared discourse focuses on quality management as a means to
obtain financing, while actors are more concerned with meeting certain
indicators that lead to institutional simulation practices, neglecting what is
truly valuable for the useful. In an effort to be the best and position in the
top rankings, higher education institutions must deal with opportunistic
practices that may arise as a result of the conflicts associated with
information asymmetries in obtaining financing.
Much has been written about the importance of measuring
levels of customer satisfaction in organizations also can identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the service, to explore in the image and
perceptions of users. In recent years, educational institutions have joined
this type of analysis because the transcendental results to continuous
improvement and implementation of quality systems.
In many institutions of higher education around the world
has been significant research to measure the services offered by the students.
Some are mentioned below. In Venezuela it was developed and applied an
instrument called SEUE (Satisfaction of University Studies with Education). The
instrument consists of 93 items, divided in 10 sections: Services, basic needs,
security, economic security, emotional security, belonging to the institution
or student group, working system, progress of personal success, recognition of
success and personal fulfillment (PALACIOS; GARCIA, 2003).
University of Tamaulipas was conducted in a similar
study, which concluded that the variables that influence student satisfaction
are Attitude of the teacher, teacher planning of the subject and review of
examinations. Also the importance of the Classrooms conditions and finally
adequacy and information services that are given by the same university provides
(SALINAS et al., 2008) is mentioned.
Peña (1997) in his paper discusses the application of
concepts of quality control and total quality to improve the quality of
teaching at the university. In this work, three basic teacher controls are
presented. For Jimenez Gonzalez (2011), student satisfaction is a key element
in assessing the quality of education, reflecting the efficiency of academic
and administrative services: Satisfaction with the learning units, with
interactions with their teacher and classmates, as well as facilities and
equipment.
Duque and Chaparro (2012) presents a very interesting
research on measuring the perception of quality in the Universidad Pedagógica y
Tecnológica de Colombia (UPTC) seccional Duitama, with an initial instrument of
45 items, but after doing studies of validity and reliability, the instrument
is reduced to 22 items. The instrument was applied to students in the last
three semesters of careers offered by the Pedagogical and Technological
University of Colombia (UPTC) Sectional Duitama, presenting a comprehensive
analysis including the procedure used in building and refining the multi scale
- items to measure the construct. Duque and Chaparro conclude that to provide
quality education is necessary to discover the components of the quality of
education for the consumer (student) that are relevant and at such competition
can make a difference and gain consumer loyalty.
Mejías and Alexander (2004) presents a model for
measuring service quality in university graduate engineering studies of the
University of Carabobo as the basis for the implementation of a quality
management system, using the SERVQUAL instrument as theoretical support
emphasizing validation of the instrument with very high validity and
reliability indicators that allow suggest the questionnaire so that it can be
applied to other university study programs. This model consists of 8 steps:
Step 0, achieve management commitment. Step 1, identify processes carried out
in the organization as well as their interactions. Step 2, determine the
optimal sample size. Step 3 SERQUALing apply the questionnaire to the selected
sample. Step 4, verify the reliability and validity of the instrument. Step 5,
identify the underlying dimensions. Step 6, evaluate the quality of service
provided by the organization. Step 7, standardize the process of measuring the
quality of service provided and step 8, improve the quality of service
provided.
The study concludes that this instrument allows
determination of the most relevant attributes for students, which would help
identify great opportunities for improvement in service delivery programs of
graduate study and provide criteria for prioritizing action improvements plans
to the decision-making process. It is achieved an analysis of factors and
dimensions in 5 among them which are defined tangibles, schedules and
appearance of staff
3. Delimitation of the problem
The study of the IES within a framework of strategic
management allows analyzing specifically how they apply their strategies in the
daily task of maintaining its educational quality. Seen from the agency theory
and the theory of resources and capacities, HEIs face challenges involving the
management of uncertainty, opportunistic practices and good use of resources.
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of how the evaluation process,
the actors involved and conflicts that may arise as a result of that process.
In the Technological Institute of Celaya, until August
2015 are registered 4058 undergraduate students and 252 graduate students.
Therefore, they are considered for this project only undergrads. They are
included in all specialties; the measuring instrument will be apply in November
and will take place online using it is Integrated Information System. It will
be made voluntarily, sending the invitation through institutional and personal
mailings of students, with the possibility that students choose areas
evaluated.
4. DIAGNOSIS
Integrated policy of the Institute reads The Technology
Institute of Celaya as training institution of professionals for more than 56
years of service, is responsible for creating, maintaining, and improving both
training and infrastructure conditions for the integral development of students
as well as workspaces of staff working and the general public visiting its
facilities, as a commitment to universal human rights, responsibility for
improving educational quality and environmental care.
To help achieve this policy the quality management system
was implemented since 2004, suffering 12 amendments to date. There are 5
strategic processes, Academic, Planning, Bonding and Linking, Resource
Management and Quality. The Academic process is continuously evaluated every
semester by an instrument that Mexico National Technology (formerly DGEST)
designs, however, the assessment of the other processes are the responsibility
of each school.
5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The use of the resources and capabilities are distinctive
features in each one of the organizations. According to Peng (2012) resources
are defined as real or tangible assets (those who can see and quantify) and
intangible (those that are hard to see and quantify). These resources are used
by a firm to choose and implement their strategies. Wernerfelt (1984) suggests
that the most important tools to dominate the market are strongly related to
the resources of the company in terms of strengths and weaknesses. A useful
tool in the strategic planning of organizations is the SWOT matrix, where
internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) and external (opportunities and
threats) by way of diagnostic analyzes and allow institutions compared to
others in the same industry for see in what ways they can improve.
The evaluation of the IES has become a controversial
topic while its impact on the substantial activities of universities has been
affected. House (2000) defines evaluation as an informed judgment, value
judgment or recommendation which in turn qualifies and / or categorizes is
comparative in nature and is based from standards, criteria, abstract principles
and particular cases. Being a complex issue, assessments do not always happen
the same way and not turn out to be of good quality, because sometimes the
evaluators are just trying to meet the sponsor (the state, the institution,
etc.).
Opportunistic practices in assessment processes affect
the quality of institutions. Opportunistic means that the actor is guided by
his or her own interests and acts under the logic of instrumental rationality,
affecting their objectivity in the evaluation. In addition, one of the main
characteristics of organizations is that they are guided by the efforts of
managers and administrators, and its intention is to avoid such practices at
all costs. These should maintain ties of cooperation, be well organized and
have confidence in the partners involved as to conduct assessment involving
multiple actors are required.
According to Varela (2008) evaluation should be a system
designed to improve and streamline the operation of the higher education
system, reducing or avoiding bureaucratic bodies. But, unfortunately scholars
have played a role as directors or managers to devote to filling out forms,
also that belonging to the National System of Researchers (SNI) generates
competition and pressure between them, creating environments of tense no
collaborative work.
The evaluation is a potentially political or politicized
activity and not easy to assure a consensus, basically generating various
evaluation programs National Research System (SNI), National Commission on
Higher Assessment (CONAEVA) Evaluation Committee Higher Education (CIEES),
National Center for Higher Education Assessment (CENEVAL) Professional
Improvement Program (PROMEP). These and other evaluation programs are
extensions of control that today have to limit the "autonomy" of the
various stakeholders, hence the need to balance the evaluation forms. It is
needed this qualitative part that allows the processing, exploiting the
quantitative results in permanent change goals
6. SUCCESSES AND PERVERSE EFFECTS OF EVALUATION IN THE
HEIS
Developments that have taken evaluative processes in the
HEIs have happened at different times and for similar purposes as noted. The
successes of the evaluation according to Ibarra (2009) are: enabled the
mobilization of the institutions breaking inertia and promoting change, allowed
a more participatory and realistic planning, facilitated greater coordination
between the various evaluation programs, allowed the extraordinary access to
financial resources to develop academic projects that otherwise would not
materialized; and it sets clear and measurable indicators.
From the point of view of the theory of resources, Toro
(2006) mentions that the resources that companies have, their unique
capabilities and core competencies should help them create their
differentiation strategies programs, actions and projects and the products or
services they give to society. HEIs have a great responsibility in the training
of professionals to provide practical knowledge to society. As a result, their
efforts to maintain educational quality are doubled while the evaluation
process serves as a regulator.
Although evaluation comes with plausible ideal of
improving the quality of the HEIs, the perverse effects that arise as a result
of it will not wait, as in the case of some consequences identified in the
census tests, evidence of deceptive marketing schools, mostly of private
support seeking to attract students. The impoverishment of the curriculum stems
from the tendency of many teachers to teach for testing neglecting fundamental
aspects that will not be evaluated and rejection of students against education
focused on preparing for the test, among others.
7. CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK
One of the key issues of agency theory is the problem
that arises in the relations between principals and agents, i.e. senior
officers and boards of directors. The following table 1 illustrates broadly the
forms of governance in the Mexican HEIs.
The Technological Institute of Celaya has a Quality
Management System. In it is set the commitment to implement all processes in
the customer satisfaction and continuous improvement according to ISO 9001:
2008 / NMX-CC-9001-IMNC-2008. These commitments are established through a
document called "Student Agreement" (ITC-AC-PO-001-01) on it is
specified the following:
A. Vocational (compliance plans and curricula).
B. Teaching practice (student-teacher relationship in the classroom)
C. Attention at counter (School services, financial resources, etc.)
D. Student Services (student coordinator career- relationship)
E. Support services (visits to companies, information centers and
computing services, cafes, transport)
Quality in the service of an educational institution is
reflected in compliance and user satisfaction about the different services
offered. This project seeks to create a methodology for measuring satisfaction
to provide reliable information and help making decisions of administrative
leaders towards continuous improvement of the processes that the institution
offers.
Table 1: Forms of governance
in the Mexican HEIs.
Government |
Elite democracy |
Hierarchy-bureaucracy |
Oligarchy entrepreneurial
or religious |
Academic Oligarchy |
Bureaucratic oligarchy |
INSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY |
Shared between different bodies |
Falls on a person who derives his power
from a delegation of the federal executive |
Rests with a small group of people, most of
them outside the institution but with economic and academic interests in it |
Rests with a small group but whose key
feature is that these are people with high academic standards and recognition |
Rests with a small group of people
representing the federal government, the state government and the employers
of a certain locality or region |
DECISION MAKING |
Focused on institutional development |
Focused on the different modalities |
Based on market criteria |
Guided by the development of knowledge in
certain areas |
According to the needs of a professional
market |
COLLEGIAL BODIES INTERNAL |
Decisive |
advisory |
advisory |
advisory |
Decisive |
EXAMPLES OF INSTITUTIONS
WITH THIS FORM OF GOVERNMENT |
Autonomous public universities |
The
National Polytechnic Institute |
Private |
Centers SEP CONACyT |
Technological universities |
FINANCING |
Federal and State governments |
Depend academic, financial and
organizational of a central entity |
Own resources |
Federal government |
Federals government, state government and
private sector. |
LEGAL PERSONALITY |
Decentralized bodies |
decentralized agencies |
Civil associations |
Associations and civil society,
decentralized organizations |
Decentralized state agencies |
GOVERNMENT BODIES The university councils (political, academic) The boards of government (prime role: to appoint the rector) The governing (faculties: administrative,
representative, executive and "initiative") |
Source: Own elaboration
based on López Zárate, R. (2003).
It begins with a thorough analysis of the state of art
for the search of a model evaluating customer satisfaction according to the
needs of the institution, followed by the identification of areas that provide
direct services to students on campus and their integration into student
engagement, design evaluation instruments with their analysis of validity and
reliability, use the correct type of sample and sample size it is critical for
proper statistical analysis, which is why these aspects are justified in the investigation.
Collect and process information through the most
convenient techniques using computer tools and statistics will be essential for
the development of research and finally the proposal seeks to make reports on
the results obtained either from generally evaluated area as in general form.
It is intended that the main impact of this model is its
use in all National Institutes of Technology of Mexico.
8. INTERVENTION PLAN
A. Strategic objective
1). General
Build and implement a model that allows the measurement
of perception of customer satisfaction in the services offered by the
Technological Institute of Celaya directly to students.
2). Specific
a)
Determine the dimensions or aspects to be evaluated.
b)
Identify the factors that affect each of the selected
dimensions.
c)
Design measurement instruments.
d)
Conduct studies of validity and reliability of
measuring instruments.
e)
Design formats to capture and analysis of information.
f)
Establish indicators of satisfaction and institutional
goals.
g)
Apply the model for the analysis of the perception of
students about the services offered by the institution.
h)
Implement improvement actions derived from the
analysis of the results together with the areas evaluated.
i)
Validate the model using a second application and
analysis of the results obtained.
The level of intervention is organizational because it
involves changes in all the Technological Institute of Celaya, including Campus
2.
9. STRATEGIES
The following table 2 summarizes the proposed activities
for intervention
Table 2: Activities
of organizational intervention.
No. |
Activity |
Period of embodiment Indicate month |
Deliverable results of the activity |
1.
|
Review of the state
of art based on studies of customer satisfaction for the adaptive model to
the institution. |
September |
Report reviewing the state of the art. |
2.
|
Selection of
dimensions and aspects to be evaluated based on the state of the art analysis
and observations made to the Quality Management System of the Technological
Institute of Celaya. |
October |
Matrix of dimensions identification and service
aspects. |
3.
|
Identification of
factors that add value to established dimensions. |
October |
October Matrix incidents by attributed dimension
factors. |
4.
|
Design of measuring
instruments to each of the departments or areas to be evaluated. |
October |
Measuring instruments. |
5.
|
Validation and
reliability of measuring instruments (type selection and sample size, pilot,
etc.). |
October |
Report validity and reliability of measuring
instruments. |
6.
|
Application of instrument |
November |
Report of results. |
7.
|
Design model |
November |
Model |
Source: Own elaboration.
10. SCALES MEASURING QUALITY OF SERVICE
In conducting the literature review on the subject of
quality service it is identified that there are two more instruments mainly
used, the Servqual and Servperf. The Servqual scale is used to measure customer
perceptions regarding service quality (PARASURAMAN; ZEITHAML; BERRY, 1988). It
includes 22 phrases that measure customer expectations and 22 similar phrases
that measure customer perceptions and quality of service is established by
differences of the scores assigned to the customer expectations and
perceptions.
This scale has been criticized by several authors, is
especial with correspondence between theory and statistical management that has
been given to support the dimensions that make up the quality of service and
typecasting regarding the methodology and operationalization (CRONIN, 1994).
The Servperf scale uses only the 22 items of the original
scale of Servqual related to perceptions (CRONIN, 1994) considering that this
is sufficient to determine the quality assessment of any service and is less
confusing measure the quality of service based only in performance. In the case
of evaluation of perceived quality in higher education institutions, this scale
is most often used, although some of them use Servqual but considering only the
items related to the perception of quality.
11. METHOD
The methodology focused on the consultation of secondary
sources, reviewing literature on the subject of service quality, compiling that
of greater importance. Thus, it was decided to use the Servperf scale in that
it is the most suited to the perception of the quality educational issues, and
from it is built the instrument adapted to the educational reality of the
institution and considering also that the scale Servperf reduces the amplitude
of the questionnaire making it easier and less mental fatigue for young people.
On the other hand, since the research is quantitative in nature, once it is
built the instrument is applied to a pilot sample of 83 students to conduct
studies of validity and reliability with appropriate statistical techniques
using SPSS version 22 package.
A. Techniques and tools
The study required the following documents for the
development
1) The
philosophy of the institution
2) Quality
Manual developed by Management System
3) The
document Contract with the student.
The investigation applied is documentary exploratory on
the review of the state of art based on studies measuring the perception of
quality educational services for the design and construction of measurement
model including an instrument with dimensions, items and scales that fit the
institution.
After analysis of several researchers on the topic of
measuring customer satisfaction in any organization, but especially in
educational institutions of higher level, it is decided to use the SERVQUAL and
SERPERF model and their adaptation to the educational field of ITC and
considering only the perceptions quality of service, it was decided to call it
SERVQUALITC. The original instrument included 20 items that should be evaluated
by a Likert scale of 1 to 5 where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 fully agree.
The instrument was presented to a group of fellow
teachers and students of the Institute for analysis of relevance and
adaptability to the educational environment. Regarding content validity, the
consultation made to the state of this art gives it validity and the items are
suitable for making measurements.
A validation study and reliability of the measuring instrument
to give confidence to the study using Cronbach it is necessary, to do a pilot
test and statistical techniques that apply appropriate using the statistical
package SPSS version 22, the AMOS V20.
B. Resources
Since the survey will be applied online, it must use a
software tool, including those offered for free can be on the network as Gmail,
SurveyMonkey, Wikispaces, etc. Either use the platform MOODLE virtual
institution called Lynx. It will be necessary computer equipment (computers,
printers, storage equipment, internet, etc.), involve human resources as
support for information capture, counting with students in social service of
the same institute
Under the analysis of the document "Student
Contract", the areas to be evaluated are presented in Table 3, the
departments listed 1 to 7, are evaluated with SERVQUALITC instrument and for
the other four were used other instruments.
Table 3:
Departments or areas to measure the perception of quality.
Department / Area |
1. Computer
Center 2. Information Center 3. Coordinators 4. School Services 5. Extracurricular
Services 6. Financial services 7. Medical Services |
1. 1.
Cafeterias 2. 2.
Cleaning Service 3. 3.
Shuttle Service 4. Monitoring Service |
Source: Own elaboration
The dimensions used and their descriptions are:
1)
Reliability. Ability to perform the promised service
dependably and accurately on.
2)
Answer's capacity. Readiness and willingness of staff
to help students and provide the service.
3)
Security. Knowledge and care shown by the staff and
their ability to inspire trust and confidence.
4)
Empathy. Personalized attention offered to students.
5)
Tangibles. Appearance of communication materials
physical facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials.
The study of validity and reliability was performed with
favorable conclusions, with a Cronbach's alpha greater than 0.7 (Cano 2015).
With the confidence of the applied instrument, it was made the quantitative
study of descriptive statistics for the analysis of the dimensions and
variables used, presenting the results to the educational authorities of the
institution for the analysis and approval of the model. Data were tabulated,
generating a matrix of 83 by 20. SPSS version 22 software was used whereby
reliability calculations and construct validity is performed. The last two
items were in control.
First it was applied the contrast of Bartlett sphericity
and measurement of sampling adequacy of Káise, Meyer and Oklin, in order to
verify whether it meets the conditions for a factorial analysis. The results
were:
Table 4: KMO
and Bartlett test. |
||
Measure
of sampling adequacy Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin. |
.936 |
|
Bartlett´s
test of sphericity |
Chi-square
approximated |
2221.161 |
gl |
105 |
|
Sig. |
.000 |
Source:
Own elaboration
As the KMO measure is greater than 0.5 is considered
acceptable, as well as Bartlett's test, as the level of significance is 0.000
as manifested by Uriel and Aldas (2005) and Pérez (2004). Then it was performed
the principal components analysis and Varimax orthogonal rotation method was
also performed, grouping in 5 dimensions that generate a cumulative variance of
85 934%.
Table 5: Rotated
matrix components.
The rotation converged in 9 iterations. |
Component |
||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
If I had problems, questions or concerns, it was shown a sincere
interest in solving it |
.894 |
.251 |
.150 |
-.003 |
.149 |
The results of my procedure or service were as expected |
.857 |
.265 |
.252 |
.035 |
.040 |
When calling for service / unit I know that I will find the best
solutions. |
.832 |
.216 |
.261 |
.004 |
.309 |
The staff is willing to serve my doubts showing confidence, safety and
courtesy. |
.798 |
.219 |
-.089 |
.275 |
.256 |
If I needed to solve any problems, questions or concerns, I was
treated in a satisfactory time |
.788 |
-.042 |
.404 |
.204 |
.058 |
The service is perfectly suited to my needs as a user |
.754 |
.253 |
.260 |
.201 |
.240 |
When I go to the service, I have no problem to contact the person who
can answer my demands. |
.701 |
.217 |
.275 |
.310 |
.271 |
The staff that served me showed enough knowledge to answer my
questions. |
.670 |
.462 |
.193 |
.121 |
.254 |
Equal service was shown for all users. |
.623 |
.296 |
.090 |
.185 |
.576 |
I have found that staff has appropriate programs and computer
equipment to carry out their work. |
.271 |
.869 |
.239 |
.161 |
.117 |
I have had the opportunity to check that staff has sufficient material
resources (computers, multifunctional, internet, furniture). |
.243 |
.832 |
.093 |
.310 |
.117 |
The service hours are convenient. |
.460 |
.228 |
.747 |
.056 |
.212 |
There is enough signage to tell me where to get the service I require.
|
.122 |
.311 |
.649 |
.570 |
.123 |
The facilities are visually appealing, maintained and suitable to
provide the service. |
.199 |
.498 |
.126 |
.766 |
.083 |
The number of people who care enough to service users. |
.430 |
.140 |
.488 |
.083 |
.670 |
Extraction Method: Principal component
analysis Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization |
Here
it can be seen that there is no need to remove any item, therefore, they are
considered the 18 initially proposed and the factors were as follows
Table 6: Classification
of factors
Factor 1 |
Items: 2,1,3,4,5,9,8,7y 6 |
Factor 2 |
Items: 11 y 12 |
Factor 3 |
Items: 10 y 14 |
Factor 4 |
Item: 13 y 16 |
Factor 5 |
Item: 15, 17 y 18 |
Source: Own elaboration
The proposed model does not fit this classification of
factors, thus, it is required calculating the reliability of each dimension
using the indicator Cronbach's alpha.
Table 7:
Calculating the reliability of each dimension using the indicator Cronbach's
alpha
Dimension |
Items |
Cronbach’s alpha |
Number of elements |
Reliability |
1,2, y 3 |
0.951 |
3 |
Answer's capacity |
4 , 5 y 6 |
0.780 |
2 |
Security |
7,8 , 9 y 10 |
0.841 |
2 |
Empathy |
11,12 y 13 |
0.876 |
3 |
Tangibles |
14, 15, 16,
17 y 18 |
0.858 |
5 |
Source:
Own calculations.
According to these results it is inferred that the
instrument has a satisfactory internal consistency as it is greater than 0.7
(1999, Hair).
The final instrument is set with 20 items, 3 measuring
reliability, 3 responsiveness, 4 security, 3 empathy, and tangible dimension 5
and 2 control items. Likert scale was used with options for response options.
1)
Strongly Disagree
2)
Moderately disagree
3) Neither agrees nor disagrees
4)
Moderately agree
5)
Strongly agree
The instrument was applied online using the option of
questionnaires Gmail and ligating in the virtual page of ITC. It was
accompanied by an awareness campaign on the importance of participating and
responds. The option was given to the student to decide the areas to evaluate,
therefore, the number of students was variable for each department or area,
being the cafes which had the highest number with 515 and the lowest was
financial services with just 283. The results were presented to the educational
authorities of the institution for analysis and approval of the model.
12. RESULTS
The final model proposed is shown below in figure 1.
Figure
1. Model to measure the perception of quality of services by students of ITC.
Source: Own
elaboration.
To make a comparative analysis it was decided to carry
out a statistical study based on the results obtained. In Table 8, a table
comparing by area and dimension is presented.
Table 8.
Statistical comparative arithmetic means by area and dimension.
|
Reliability |
Answer´s capacity |
Security |
Empathy |
Tangibles |
Mean |
Computer center |
3.58 |
3.60 |
3.80 |
3.50 |
3.54 |
3.73 |
Information center |
3.89 |
3.84 |
3.95 |
3.78 |
3.84 |
3.75 |
Coordinators |
3.60 |
3.62 |
3.74 |
3.71 |
3.65 |
3.73 |
School services |
3.93 |
3.87 |
4.06 |
3.84 |
3.78 |
3.74 |
Extracurricular services |
3.83 |
3.89 |
3.95 |
3.82 |
3.76 |
3.71 |
Financial services |
3.88 |
3.90 |
3.98 |
3.90 |
3.84 |
3.66 |
Medical services |
3.36 |
3.30 |
3.57 |
3.28 |
3.22 |
3.54 |
Mean |
3.72 |
3.72 |
3.86 |
3.69 |
3.66 |
|
Source:
Own elaboration
Related areas with cafes, cleaning and security services
were measured with other instruments; the results obtained are presented in
Table 9.
Table 9:
Statistical comparative arithmetic means of the areas measured with other instruments.
|
Arithmetic
mean |
Scale |
Cafeterias |
3.27 |
1
very bad to 5 very good |
Surveillance
services |
3.62 |
1
in disagreement to 5 fully agree |
Cleaning
services |
3.78 |
1
very bad to 5 very good |
Transport
services |
3.82 |
1
very bad to 5 very good |
Source: Own elaboration.
For purposes of making a comparative analysis more suited
to the measurement range of skills used in academics, Table 10 represents the
score obtained by the perception of students and colors that simulate approval
(yellow) or presented fail (red) services.
Table 10
Qualification obtained from areas or departments descending order.
DEPARTAMENT/AREA |
SCORE |
1.
School services 2.
Financial services 3.
extracurricular services |
78 78 77 |
4.
Information center |
77 |
5.
Transport services 6.
Cleaning services |
76 76 |
7.
Coordinators |
73 |
8.
Computer Center |
72 |
9.
Surveillance services |
72 |
10.
Cafeterias |
65 |
11.
Medical services |
63 |
Source:
Own elaboration
13. Discussion
Evaluate and design quality in absolutist terms
regardless of the student's perception and measure without him/her persist in
this omission would continue in a state of myopia (DUQUE; CHAPARRO, 2012).
Thrown results indicate that the instrument can be used with confidence.
However, it is very important to emphasize the commitment
of the management. It cannot undertake this model if there is not the
commitment of management. The document "contract with the student" is
the first step established in the management system quality. However, sometimes
it seems to forget that the student is the center of educational work and
he/she gets to be treated cold, discourteous and sometimes even rude way. The
instrument reveals what is important from the perspective of students and to
analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the services the institution offers so
that managers come to manage these aspects.
It is important to note that, when presenting the results
of this evaluation to the Institute authorities, major changes and corrective
actions occurred, especially in the areas which received the lowest scores in
this case cafeterias and medical service. The actions taken were welcomed by
who headed the evaluation, because they believed on the importance given to it,
but especially to students who have benefited from the changes. The process of
educational evaluation was not considered in this research, since it is a
process established by the National Technology of Mexico and is systemized
semiannually. Of course also requires its analysis, but is beyond the scope of
this investigation.
Similarly, it is important to emphasize the sample
structure of the research, so that statistically is right. That is, the correct
calculation of sample size, and suggested a random stratified sampling that
includes all careers offered in the Institute of Technology. It is recognized
that for this evaluation there was not size or type of sampling was considered
to be the first time applied. The survey was open to all who wished to
participate. On the other hand, this time only was considered undergraduates;
however, it must include graduate students, since they also use the services,
perhaps with some modifications to the instrument to make it more suited to
graduate needs.
Similarly, emphasis should be given on how to gather the
information. Use of technological means is a good choice, but must be
accompanied by an awareness campaign to students to answer questionnaires.
Maybe make mandatory the instrument for those students they are randomly
chosen, as is done in the evaluation of teachers. The descriptive statistical
analysis is also very important to perform professionally summarized in tables
and graphs showing the actual results of the evaluation and easy to interpret
for those who make the decisions of correction.
Can also include other statistical analyzes, such as analysis
correlation, comparison of averages by gender, career, etc.
For this occasion, five dimensions of evaluation that
were used and as suggested by the theoretical sources consulted, but should not
rule out the possibility of including other dimensions that might be relevant
to the evaluation of the perception of service quality. A deeper analysis of
art can give the possibility to explore new dimensions.
Some areas were evaluated with instruments other than
SERVQUALITC by the nature of the service. These areas are cleaning services,
security services; cafeteria service and shuttle service were evaluated. The
latter considering the transport takes students from one campus to another (1.5
km. about) and practice trips, visits, events, etc. These instruments were
proposed by theoretical consultations developed related to the subject and the
suggestion of the team that participated in this research. However, they do not
include analysis of validity and reliability, so it would be worthwhile to
perform such analyzes that give confidence to the instruments.
This proposed model may be susceptible to be used by the
technological changes that are part of the educational system called National
Technology Mexico and home to over 250 federal and decentralized institutions,
with adaptation to the particular contextual reality of each one. The
educational process cannot be either passive or routine, it is more active and
its development requires constant changes on people who are training
(students). This change does not occur immediately, but must be managed by all
possible means and requires the commitment of all involved in the process.
The higher education environment is changing
exponentially. These changes merit that studies are conducted periodically in
order to discover new needs, desires and expectations of students and design
and implement services that meet them. As expressed by Ospina (2008)
"Quality education is one that produces changes in the student through the
appropriation of knowledge for transfer to the social realities of their
environment.
The organizational changes resulting from the automation
of tasks and functions made a shift from a rigid to a flexible manner. Such
processes generated managers to focus more on people and situations. The
assessment also implies that actors know and engage in activities that entails.
According to Eisenhardt (1989) agency theory arises when the owners
(principals) begin to delegate the managerial functions and decision making to
other individuals (agents). The relationship arising between both agents will
determine the direction of organizations.
As pointed out by Fama and Jensen (1983) the main reason
why agency problems persist are asymmetries of information between principals
and agents. In terms of evaluation, as is pointed out, the tendency to
opportunistic practices can be an indication of simulation practices not only
affects the organization but also the reputation of the evaluators. The
emphasis of this theory according to Daily, Dalton and Cannella (2003) is
associated with two factors: firstly, it is a very simple theory, in which
large companies are reduced to two participants, managers and shareholders, and
interests of each are supposed to be clear and consistent. Second, the notion
of human beings is that they are willing to sacrifice personal interests for
the interests of others.
In the realm of HEIs, basic management functions allow
them to maintain an adequate rate of which is directed towards. It is necessary
to carry out a planning that determines which results are to be achieved and
establish appropriate strategies for their achievement. In a second time, it
should organize how the proposed results will be achieved. It will be necessary
to identify the division of tasks and functions to each individual or groups
within the organization.
In the same process, leadership plays a vital role, since
the function of those who lead and motivate members of the organization
influence how articulate efforts and objectives are achieved. At the same time,
there will be strategic control systems to check whether they have achieved the
expected results through it may identify performance deviations and take
corrective measures to be channeled in achieving the objectives.
In a critical analysis of Ibarra (2003) on the university
defines this as an invented reality, the regulations would be the foundation,
the coordination system which gives structure, leaving aside the essence of the
actors, the teaching as such, and there needs to demonstrate that it meets the
challenges. It is forgotten the substantive role of the university to respond
to social problems and all is imagined by numbers and indicators.
Undoubtedly, the control exercised by senior managers in
the organization has to do with the kind of results that are generated, since
managers are who are responsible for joint teamwork and decide who occupy
strategic positions. Precisely Zajac and Westphal (1996) note that the power
that managers have in relation to the decision to elect board members,
considering such factors as reputation, expertise or sympathy that the manager
has, leads to strengthening his leadership.
From that stage, it is required more efforts among
stakeholders to be shared, which are fighting for the generation of knowledge
created by multidisciplinary teams so that teamwork is strengthened and that researchers do not become lonely
players. Undoubtedly, the negotiations will also function as a regulator of the
rules in the institution.
14. CONCLUSION
A. Evaluation
This study contributes to the quality management system
to achieve the ISO 900 recertification giving much pride to school, but most
importantly to make the necessary corrective actions to improve services and
remain one of the best technological institutes of the country.
B. Validación del instrumento
Any measurement or instrument data collection must meet
two essential requirements: reliability and validity. The validity, in general
terms, refers to the degree to which an instrument actually measures the
variable being measured. They can be different types of evidence 1) evidence
related to the content, 2) evidence relating to the criteria and 3) evidence
related to the construct (the most important especially from a scientific
perspective) (CORRAL, 2009).
The validation process of a construct is linked with
theory. Instrument reliability: The reliability of the instrument components is
obtained by correlating presenting their items between themselves and the
concept for which it was created, is obtained by statistical analyzes, such as
Pearson correlation and internal consistency by Cronbach Alpha.
C. Cost / benefit
In reality the costs are few, since the institution has
the equipment and tools physical and materials for the project necessary, the
will to do the project and the time required for this are what you need, the
benefit will be very big long as the corrective actions that each area
competence for continuous improvement are made.
The major challenges facing higher education institutions
with respect to evaluation, accreditation and quality assurance revolve around
generating knowledge applicable to local contexts, adopting regulatory policies
that can minimize the risks of low educational offerings quality (private
sector, mostly), encourage the active participation of academic actors
(teachers, students) on the conceptualization of the quality joint assessment
processes with improvement concepts, autonomy and academic freedom.
The decisions made within institutions of higher
education are framed first by the historicity of them, the organization and
each particular structure, as well as the "dependency" of government
funding based on the joint knowledge generation. These elements are closely
related to the "games" of power that are "cooked", mainly
within universities intermittently when making decisions that set the course of
the university way.
The agency theory enables to analyze from the university
government how the HEIs organize, discuss and develop assessment processes,
facing opportunistic practices and complex environments involving actors in few
cooperative ties due to power struggles and personal interests. Moreover, the
theory of resources and capabilities facilitates understanding the use given to
the tangible and intangible resources in making decisions that lead to
achieving the objectives.
Moreover, it is necessary that education as a public good
and students as subjects of law should be resumed, in that sense. Latapí (2008)
reflects on the quality of education, alluding to four traits, character,
intelligence, feelings and freedom associated with the social function of the
university to train professionals with integrity and consistent with what they
say and do, acquire general knowledge but also those specialized for specific
tasks, training in values (tolerance, justice, equity), the cultivation of
the imagination and empathy, as well as allow students to feel free to reach
their goals and make sense of the role they play in society, without focusing
only on obtaining economic or recognition of merit.
Similarly, the evaluation should be a tool to encourage
continuous improvement. Self-evaluation becomes a key part of these processes,
but this will be useful to the extent that stakeholders are aware of their
actions, that there is a change of mentality less focused on control, money and
the market, greater teamwork and knowledge generation applicable to the local
context.
Evaluation is not an automatic process, not because it is
evaluated is improved. Obtaining greater financial resources does not raise the
quality, i.e. assess is a process that involves seriousness, objectivity and
the capacity to make decisions according to the results. An important element
to consider in the evaluation process is the "interest", i.e., the
ends that people raised in the evaluation are vital to include the interests of
all concerned groups of program or policy and use the power as a mean to
balance and participation of members.
REFERENCES
CANO, T.; ZARATE, C.; LUGO, E. (2015). Validez y Fiabilidad de un Instrumento para medir la
Percepción de la Calidad del Servicio por parte de los Estudiantes del
Instituto Tecnológico de Celaya. Academia
Journal.com
CASANOVA CARDIEL, H.; GÓMEZ, R. R. (1999). Universidad contemporánea. Política y gobierno, 2. México: Centro
de Estudios sobre la Universidad-UNAM.
CORRAL, Y. (2009). Validez y confiabilidad de los instrumentos de
investigación para la recolección de datos, Revista Ciencias de la Educación.
Segunda Etapa. v. 19, n. 33.
Universidad de Carabobo.
CRONIN, J.; TAYLOR, S. (1994). SERVPERF vs. SERVQUAL reconciling
performance – based and perceptions- minus expectations measurement of service
quality, Journal of Marketing, v. 58, January p. 125-131.
DAILY, C.; DALTON, D.; CANNELLA, A. (2003). Corporate governance. AMR, n.
28, p. 371-382.
DÍAZ, D. (2003). Validación de una escala de
medida para la determinación de la calidad de servicio en una institución de
educación superior. México: Chiclayo.
DUQUE, E.; CHAPARRO, C. (2012) Medición de la percepción
de la Calidad del servicio de Educación por parte de los estudiantes de la UPTC
Duitama. Revista Criterio Libre, v. 10, n. 16, p. 159-192.
EISENHARDT, K. (1989). Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, n. 14, p.57-74.
FAMA, E.; JENSEN, M. (1983). Separation of ownership and control. Journal of Law and Economics, n. 26, p.
301-325.
FERNÁNDEZ LAMARRA, N. (2005). La
evaluación de la calidad y su acreditación en la educación superior en América
Latina y el MERCOSUR. En: J, Mora y N. Fernández. Educación Superior convergencia entre América Latina y Europa, Procesos
de evaluación y acreditación de la calidad. Argentina: Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero. p. 95-114.
FRANCO ESPEJEL, G. M. (2003). Validación del
SERVQUAL, en una institución pública mexicana. Revista Unidad
Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Ingeniería y Ciencias Sociales y
Administrativas, v. 33, n. 1,
p. 1–4.
PALACIOS, S. G.; GARCÍA, M. V. (2003). El SEUE: un instrumento para conocer
la satisfacción de los estudiantes universitarios con su educación. Acción Pedagógica, v. 12, n. 2, p. 16-27.
HAIR, J.; ANDERSON, R.; TATHAM, R.; BLACK, W. (1999). Análisis Multivariante. Madrid: Prentece Hall.
HOUSE, E. R. (2000). Evaluación, ética y poder.
España: Morata, p. 15-62.
IBARRA COLADO, E. (2003). Prólogo. En: Porter, Luis. La universidad de papel. Ensayo sobre la
educación superior en México. México,
UNAM/CIICH. p. 7-30.
IBARRA COLADO, E. (2009). Impacto de la evaluación en la Educación
Superior Mexicana: valoración y debates. Revista
de la Educación Superior, v. XXXVIII, n. 149, enero-marzo. p. 173-182.
México.
JIMÉNEZ GONZÁLEZ, A.; TERRIQUEZ CARRILLO, B.; ROBLES ZEPEDA, F. J. (2011). Evaluación de la satisfacción académica de
los estudiantes de la Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit. Universidad Autónoma
de Nayarit.
LATAPÍ SARRE, P. (2008). Una
buena educación. Reflexiones sobre la calidad. México: Universidad de Colima. p.17-32.
LÓPEZ ZÁRATE, R. (2003). Formas
de gobierno y gobernabilidad institucional. Análisis comparativo de seis
instituciones de educación superior. México: ANUIES. Cap. 3.
MARTÍNEZ RIZO, F. (2010). Usos y abusos de la evaluación educativa. Este
País, n. 232. México.
MEJÍAS, A.; ALEXANDER, A. (2005). Modelo para
medir la calidad del servicio en los estudios universitarios de posgrado. Revista Universidad, Ciencia y Tecnología,
v. 10, n. 34, p. 81-85
OLDFIELD, B. M.; BARON, S. (2000). Student perceptions of sevice
quality in a UK university business and management faculty. Quality Assurance in education, v. 5, n. 1, p. 85–95.
OSPINA, R. (2008). Calidad de la educación desde la convergencia de criterios de modelos
de evaluación de la educación superior 1996 – 2006. Tesis doctoral no publicada, Tunja: Universidad pedagógica y
tecnológica de Colombia, departamento de Ciencias de la Educación.
PARASURAMAN, A.; ZEITHAML,V.; BERRY, L. (1988)
Servqual: A Multiple – Ítem Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of
Servicie Quality, Journal of Retailing, v. 64, n. 1, spring, p. 12-40.
PENG, M. (2012). Global Strategy. Cincinnati: Thomson South-Western.
PEÑA, D. (1997). La mejora de la calidad en la
educación: reflexiones y
experiencias. Madrid: Getafe.
PÉREZ, C. (2004).
Técnicas de análisis multivariante de
Datos. Prentice Hall.
PRUGSAMATZ, S.; HEANEY, J. G.; ALPERT, F.
(2007). Measuring
and investigating pretrial multi–expectations of service quality within the
higher education context. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, v. 17, n. 1, p. 17–47.
REYES SÁNCHEZ, O.; REYES PAZOS, M. (2009). Calidad del servicio
educativo: Caso de la escuela de artes de la UABC. X Congreso Nacional de
Investigación Educativa, México, 1–10.
SALINAS GUTIÉRREZ, A.; MORALES LOZANO, J. A.; MARTÍNEZ CAMBLOR, P. (2008).
Satisfacción del estudiante y calidad Universitaria: un análisis explicatorio
en la Unidad Académica Multidisciplinaria Agronomía y Ciencias de la
Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México. Revista de Enseñanza Universitaria, v. 31, n. 4, p. 39-55.
SANDER, B. (1989). Gestión y administración de los sistemas educacionales:
problemas y tendencias. Perspectivas,
v. XIX, n. 2. UNESCO, París.
TORO, D. (2006). En enfoque estratégico de la responsabilidad social
corporativa: revisión de la literatura académica. Intangible Capital, v. 2, n. 14, p. 338-358. Universidad Politécnica
de Catalunya. Departamento de Organización de empresas.
URIEL; ALDAS (2005).
Análisis Multivariente Aplicado.
Madrid: Editorial Thomson.
VALENZUELA, R. (2010) Hugo, Los Sistemas de Calidad en las Instituciones
Educativas. Tendencias Actuales. Revista
Digital la Educación, Organización de los Estados Americanos. Santiago de
Chile.
VARELA PETITO, GONZALO (2008). La
educación superior en México. Planeación,
evaluación y entorno. Argentina. Ed.
Miño y Dávila. Capítulo III, p. 75-116.
VARGAS HERNÁNDEZ, J. G.; GUERRA GARCÍA, E.;
BOJÓRQUEZ GUTIÉRREZ, A.; BOJÓRQUEZ GUTIÉRREZ, F. (2014). Gestión estratégica de organizaciones. Argentina: Ediciones Insumisos Latinoamericanos.
VERGARA, JUAN CARLOS S. (2010). Análisis de la
calidad en el servicio y satisfacción de los estudiantes de Ciencias Económicas
de la Universidad de Cartagena mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Revista
electrónica de investigación educativa.
VILLASEÑOR GARCÍA, G. (2003). La evaluación de la
educación superior: su función social. Reencuentro,
n. 36, p. 20-29. Recuperado de http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=34003603
WERNERFELT, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, n. 5, p.
171-180.
YEO, R. K. (2009). Service quality ideals in a
competitive tertiary environment. International Journal of Education Research, v. 48, n. 1, p. 62–76.
ZAJAC, E.; WESTPHAL, J. (1996). Director reputation, CEO-board power,
and the dynamics of board interlocks. ASQ, n. 41, p. 507-529.