IMMUNITY
TO TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSION: PLANNED TECHNOLOGY AND UNPLANNED ADAPTATION
Raj Kumar Bhattarai
Nepal Commerce Campus, Faculty of Management Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E-mail: raj.bhattarai@outlook.com
Submission: 04/10/2015
Revision: 28/10/2015
Accept: 30/10/2015
ABSTRACT
The phenomena of technology
transfer and adaptation are not only compelling elements of the business
environment for managerial commitment, but also the manageable fit and
acceptance of the phenomena with the
principal actors in the structural settings that are immune to change.
Effectiveness of technology diffusion primarily depends on the process of its
transfer and acceptance of the principal actors in the structural settings for
its adaptation.
This paper analyzes the technology
planning priorities of the government of Nepal by covering the period of the
last fifty years of the country’s planned economy at one part and examines the
organizational/structural settings for technology diffusion on the other. An
extensive overview of national plan documents determines the government’s planning
priorities and initiatives for technology diffusion in the country. Examination
of the organizational settings in the country indicates the degree of
congruence between the planning priorities and arrangement for organizational
settings in the enduring process of technology diffusion. An analysis of the
response of opinion leaders from selected organizations involved in technology
works/projects supplements to the analysis and conclusion of the study. This
study concludes with an identification of unplanned organizational settings
remaining as a structural immunity to the planned technology diffusion in the
country.
Keywords:
technology
planning. technology diffusion. organizational setting. structural immunity.
technology adaptation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Structural settings and technology
diffusion in a country are prerequisites and reciprocals of each other. In this
study, structural setting refers to the set of organizations or institutions
working in the area of technology absorption, development and transfer. The
process of technology dissemination, transfer, and absorption in multiple areas
like infrastructure, socioeconomic , governance, and compliance sectors of an
economy refers the diffusion of
technology.
An assimilation of national
technology planning priorities and functional priorities of the organizations
working in the areas of technology dissemination and transfer is a condition of
technological advancement in a country. The process of technology diffusion is
an integration of the priorities with the working priorities of the technology
adopters.
The instrumentality of organizations
involving in the process of technology diffusion needs to be assessed at
different levels of analysis. It is necessary to understand the dialectical
relationships between the forces of conflict, coercion, and disruption at one
level and forces of consensus, unity, and integration at another level of the
organization (ASTLEY; VAN DE VEN, 1983).
Organizations and their leaders
master the immunity to change which will be dominant in their functional areas.
They will set the standard in terms of accomplishing their own goals and they
will have the greatest loyalty and commitment of their internal constituents (KEGAN; LASKOW LAHEY, 2009). There may be
incongruence between the national technology planning priorities and the
priorities of the adopting organizations involved in technology diffusion process.
In the context like Nepal, where
government presence in the economy is nominal but the private and
non-government sectors are enjoying freedom for the establishment and
operationalization of organizations in the areas of their own choice, diffusion
of technology as intended in the national plan documents is in limbo. Unplanned
permission for organization establishment increases the number of organizations
but it does not assimilate the technology planning priorities and functional
priorities of the adopter organizations. The organizations develop their own structural
immunity with strong commitment to their own constituencies or stakeholders.
The immunity does not only prevent the organization in bringing change but
remains incompatible with the intended change initiatives and planning
priorities.
In pursuance of self-reliance, Nepal
developed technological capabilities in some specific areas such as
agriculture, civil engineering, architecture, metallurgy, water management,
medicine, textile and paper manufacture, dyeing and food technology (SINGH; BHUJU, 2001) in its own way until the
beginning of her planned economy. Traditional technologies like constructing
religious artifacts, images, and temples; construction of temples, pagodas, and
stupas; textiles using handlooms; handmade paper; brewing wine and hard liquor;
preserving meats, fruits, and vegetables (JOSHI,
2007) were in practice during the period.
Modern science and technology began
along with the beginning of the planned economy. The country has made only a
little progress in a few areas like biogas, biomass, micro-hydropower, solar
energy, software development, construction materials, and food processing.
Although, science and technology
systems in Nepal still need much more structural improvement in almost all the
sectors like infrastructure, socioeconomic, governance and compliance. In view
of the statement, this paper concentrates on the two major problems. The one is
to get insight into the technology
planning priorities during the planned economic efforts of more than 50 years;
and the second one is to examine the
technology planning priorities and structural settings aligned for the
technology diffusion.
The study argues that diffusion of
technology represents the cumulative number of adopters of a new product,
material, or process in a particular society. It follows S-shaped curve and
needs an integrated efforts of all the socio-industrial actors. It is passing
through various channels to the socioeconomic sector of a nation. Similarly,
the study further argues that an alignment between the structural and
organizational settings and national technology priorities is essential in
order to develop and diffuse the technology because organizations are the
carrier of the technology as well. More specifically, the objectives of the study are:
a)
To
examine the technology planning priorities during the planned economic efforts
of more than 50 years ; and
b)
To
ascertain the alignment between technology planning priorities and structural
settings for the technology diffusion.
The results of this study provide
ample evidences and illustrations to the policy makers and planners that the phenomena
of technology transfer and adaptation are not only compelling elements of the
business environment for managerial commitment, but also the manageable fit and
acceptance of the phenomena with the
principal actors in the structural settings that are being immune to change.
This study overviewed technology
planning priorities of Nepal covering the period from 1956 to 2013. An overview of
5849 plus pages of the periodic plan and review documents of Nepal had been completed
in order to determine the planning priorities for technology diffusion in the
country. An exploration on the organizational settings had been made to identify
the major organizations involved in the process of technology diffusion.
Overview of the objectives and
working areas of the selected organizations was also done in order to ascertain
their functional priorities. Unstructured interviews with selected opinion
leaders associated with one or more of such organizations at different point of
time were also incorporated while determining the reasons of structural
immunity to change.
Overview of the plan and review
documents determined the technology diffusion priorities and initiatives as well
as achievements in technology branding, grading, and diffusion in the country.
Subsequent exploration of the organizations found some major works/projects
aiming at technology development/diffusion in different sectors in different
ways. The opinion leaders’ response complemented the discussion section as
well.
Triangulation of the planning
priorities, initiatives, and responses of the opinion leaders over the
works/projects of their organizations had been made in order to determine the
structural immunity to technology diffusion in the country.
2. ANALYSIS
Technology advancement program in
less developed countries like Nepal is influenced by the diffusion of imported
technology. The adaptation process of a new technology encounters structural
barriers like sociocultural, psychological, and economical in due course of its
diffusion (PANDEY; YADAMA, 1992).
Institutional interdependence,
mainly between the organizations involved in training, education, research and development
and the technology adopters as well as supporting services industry actors are
derailing the process of technology diffusion in the less developed country. It
has been argued that role of the regulators and government officials in
bringing these two sets of institutions and actors needs to be consultative and
participative instead of authoritative one.
Nepal adopted planned economy from
the beginning of second half of the twentieth century (NPC, 2012). The technology planning priorities concentrated into
two paths of technology diffusion. The first one is to develop and diffuse the
indigenous technology and the second one is to transfer-in already developed
technology from developed countries. The priority of Nepal was on both the
paths of developing the indigenous technology and transfer-in of foreign
technology as well.
a)
First
Plan (1956 - 1961)
Technology and capital equipment
considered key factors in the growth of production. The Plan assumed that
improvement of economic condition within the country was depending upon
knowledge of technology and expanded programs in education. Until the end of
the first plan, there were nine institutions in the field of technical
knowledge and skills development in the country, and 6351 persons were getting
education and training in different fields.
b)
Second
Plan (1961 - 1965)
Technical knowledge shortage was
realized sharply and high emphasis was given on technical training. Low and
medium level skills training was intended to deliver within the country and
foreign countries were sought for higher-level training. The country was
receiving technical assistance from foreign countries and agencies namely
America, India, China, Russia, Britain, Australia, Switzerland, New Zealand,
Canada, United Nations, and Ford Foundation as well during the period.
In the first and second plans,
special attention was given for the establishment of experimental farms and
livestock centers and the training of middle-grade technicians. During the
second plan period, 680 middle-grade technicians were trained and sent them to
the districts.
c)
Third
Plan (1965 - 1970)
Technology
transfer/diffusion was sought in the field of agriculture in order to replace
the primitive practices. Agriculture extension to date had not been very
successful because of the lack of transport facilities, technicians, and
coordination with other developmental programs, improved seeds, fertilizer,
credit, and efficient administration.
Decentralization
of authority was in priority and the government agencies (Panchayats)
were expected to handle the tasks of developing and/or diffusing technical
skills. High emphasis was on the vocational and adult education. Most of the
high-level technicians like doctors, engineers, and agriculture specialists
were receiving education and training in India. Technical assistance for
private sector development was assured and high priority was on the production
of food grains. Technical assistance for training facilities, transport
development, storage as well as private sector development was quite laudable
during the period.
d)
Fourth
Plan (1970 - 1975)
Expansion
of foreign trade considered as a mean of obtaining capital goods and technical
expertise. Labor-intensive technology and use of indigenous resources had been
realized as an important vehicle for employment generation. It was expected
that the use of labor-intensive technology would bring multiplier effects in
the economy. Emphasis was given to the technical education especially in the fields
such as engineering, health, education, and commerce.
Several
technical and vocational training centers were opened during the period;
however, foreign assistance was sought in order to train the personnel in
technical fields. Research programs in agriculture sectors were considered to
be carried out as an integrated way of various units- agricultural botany,
agronomy, agricultural engineering, entomology, plant pathology, soil science,
etc. Emphasis was on the production of agriculture sector technicians like
Junior Technician (JT) and Junior Technical Assistant (JTA) in district
agriculture offices.
Lead
farmer training program, food research program, and forestry programs were much
more desired at that time. The World Bank group was expected to conduct
technical and economic feasibility survey for roads throughout the country.
Technical experts and equipment were sought from the United Nations for the
development of telecommunications facilities. Computer technology was
introduced from the year 1971 and National Computer Center was established in
1974.
e)
Fifth
Plan (1975 - 1980)
Encouragement
of labor-intensive techniques and extensive rural works programs were major
concentration of the plan. Emphasis was given for the development of technical
manpower from concerned institutions in the field of engineering, medicine,
agriculture, and so on.
f)
Sixth
Plan (1980 - 1985)
Development
and use of technology involving biogas, solar energy, wind power, and natural
gas was emphasized. Maximum use of local skills and technology was desired in
the implementation of development project.
The
plan intended to improve technology in the area of breed development of calves,
bulls, buffaloes, goats, sheep, chicken, fish, and fingerlings was expected to
disseminate very soon. Emphasis was put on the development of practical
production technology that had immediate relevance to the problems confronting
the farmers.
Intention
of labor-intensive technology and job creation was continuous. Drug research
and productivity improvement of the cottage industries were also emphasized in
the Plan. There was also encouragement to adopt foreign technology and capital
in the extraction of mineral deposits as well as establishment of mineral
processing industries.
The
plan intended to adopt cost efficient technology in connection with the
construction of small hydel projects. Similarly, maximum use of labor-intensive
technology and development of construction technology, which would permit
maximum use of locally available construction materials was emphasized.
This
Plan specified national science and technology objective, policy and program
for the first time in the history of planned economy of Nepal. The objectives
were focused to increase capability of national science and technology that
would enable to embrace the entire development processes of the country, to
inform the people at large on the use and utility of science and technology,
and to maintain coordination among the different units that were engaged in
developing and extending science and technology.
g)
Seventh
Plan (1985 - 1990)
This
plan intended to expand and diversify the export market by enhancing
competitiveness of exportable goods from the adoption of high technology and
own skills as well. It was assumed that judicious use of science and technology
would shift the dependence from agriculture to industries.
The
Plan set objective of developing science and technology in the same pace as
that of economic and social development of the country. The objectives included
as upgrading the capability of science and technology by developing scientific
and technical manpower, conducting research and development activities,
transfer of know-how on organizational development and management; and
expanding the use of science and technology by bringing awareness among the
people.
The
plan intended to make amendments and changes in imported technology in order to
suit the local needs as well as manpower training for the use of appropriate
science and technology. It was expected that indigenously developed technology
would be further tested for its improvement and people would be informed about
the concept, utility, and importance of science and technology in their daily
lives.
The
attempt of transfer of technology to the cottage industry continued during the
period. The plan intended to continue research works for the development
of technology in the areas of low cost construction and use of local raw
materials. Emphasis was given to maximize the use of local technology, expertise,
and skills and to explore and develop new and appropriate technology as well.
h)
Eighth
Plan (1992 - 1997)
It
was assumed that advanced technology and institutional reforms would be made
indispensable tools of support to private sector and organizations down to the
village level. Dissemination of appropriate technology in agriculture sector
was continuous in the plan as well.
In
order to accelerate the technology transfer process, it was aimed to increase
participatory role of agricultural research in training and communication
programs. Some joint venture and technology promotion institutions were
expected to be set up with a view to providing support to manufacture energy
related equipment. Indigenous labor, skill and resource as well as foreign investment
and technology were desired to utilize in development of hydropower. Rural
telecommunication services were intended to be provided by adopting appropriate
technology to the geographical features of the country.
Foreign
investment was expected to be increased for
maximum utilization of managerial and technical skills, modern
technology, and in the process of
promoting industries. The Plan made institutional arrangements to familiarize
the cottage and small-scale industries with market, technology, skills, and the
like.
There
was an intention to establish technology transfer and development center to
collect and publish statistics related to technology development and transfer,
and to assist technically in the selection, evaluation, and replication of
suitable technology. Technical schools started to be established in different
parts of the country. The plan included activities like development of national
information bank and network system, social communication program, and
development of technology for the poor.
The
plan continued with the objectives of developing science and technology in a
way that it could support all-round development of the nation; supporting rural
development sectors such as agriculture, cottage and small scale industries by
enhancing scientific and technological capabilities available in the country;
and encouraging import of foreign
technologies that have a direct bearing on the country's economic development.
Major
programs of the Plan included the management and expansion of infrastructure
necessary to enhance the potentials of scientific research and development;
promotion of technology transfer and replication; productivity of quality
workforce; and publicity and dissemination of technology.
The
Plan further attempted to promote technology transfer and replication in
agriculture, industry, transport, communication, and construction, and if
necessary, it was intended to permit for import of such technology. The
concerned government, private and non-government organizations, and
institutions were encouraged to undertake this task.
i)
Ninth
Plan (1997 - 2002)
Priority
to communication and information
technology was given more in the Plan in order to adopt the changing
technology. It was essential to launch programs such as experiment and
development of indigenous and advanced technology, reforms in education, and
development of information and communication infrastructure. Similarly,
development of indigenous technology and adoption of new and advanced
technology were also in priority.
Establishment
of an Information Technology (IT) Park and production and export of software at
lower cost were other attractions of the Plan. Emphasis was continuous on
adoption of employment-oriented technology. Appropriate technology for food
industries in the areas of collecting, grading, processing, and marketing was
desired to develop even after several trials and findings.
Attention
was given to the environment and pollution control. It was planned that
National Broadcasting Authority (NBA) would be established and an effective
broadcasting of radio and television would be arranged. It was desired to
prepare national information infrastructure for contributing to the development
of agriculture, health, education, tourism, and commerce sectors through the
information technology park and information highway.
Focus
of the objectives were maintaining sustainability in economic, social, cultural
and environmental perspectives; improving traditional technologies; developing
and transferring appropriate rural technology; developing and transferring
advanced technology in order to reduce foreign trade deficit; improving
teaching and learning in higher education; improving energy use efficiency;
expanding hydro and meteorological services; and emphasizing the research and
development activities.
System
of developing science and technology sectors was expected to be initiated in
the districts, municipalities, and village development committees. A
twenty-year science and technology perspective plan was likely to be formulated
during the plan period; application of hydro, solar and wind energy was
encouraged to replace imported energy through the adaptive study, research and
development and commercialization of energy technology.
Advanced
technology transfer and development programs were intended to be conducted
through the agencies that were interested to produce goods having comparative
advantage, alternative energy use was emphasized; and arrangement of subsidy
was also be made for those efforts that were developing and transferring for
export and/or trade promotion.
j)
Tenth
Plan (2002 - 2007)
This
Plan included the use of high-tech technology in rural area. Micro and rural
industrial technology, telecommunication, and information technology, appropriate
and environment friendly technology, agricultural technology, biotechnology,
labor-intensive technology in rural areas were some areas of concentration.
Technology
related with geographic information system was intended to apply to prepare
soil database. Use of technology was considered instrumental in fulfilling
basic needs, alleviating poverty, promoting income generating activities,
generating employment opportunities, conserving environment and natural
resources. The plan wished for making children, women, and deprived section
economically independent with science and technology.
A
national level electronic network of science and technology information centers
was in priority to integrate the scattered science and technology libraries and
records across the country. Commercialization of alternative energy
technologies and reducing the dependence on imported energy through the planned
technology development and expansion programs were also included in the plan.
k)
Three
Years Interim Plan (2007 - 2010)
The
industry sector faced problems in technology transfer and absorption. Rural
information centers were started to be established in different parts of the
country. Promotion of indigenous skill, efficiency, and technology became the
conditions of foreign aid acceptance. Priority had been accorded to industries,
professions and programs based on labor-intensive technology to generate
employment opportunities in rural areas.
The
agricultural production system would be made more competitive and commercial
through the extension of appropriate agricultural technology. Promotion of
rainwater harvesting in rural areas was emphasized. Utilization of information
technology in order to make farmers capable of making decision by disseminating
advanced technology and market information to the rural levels emphasized.
Multi
sector technology development trials were expected to carry out. Agriculture
research and technology transfer got high priority in public investments.
National Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDF) was intended to be
involved to develop and expand technologies for short terms with social
mobilization.
Department
of Food Technology and Quality Control (DFTQC) was expected to be extended to
districts to render the service of maintaining food hygiene and safety.
Introduction of Safety Management System by utilizing advanced technology of
international standard in the civil aviation sector was proposed to ensure the
flight safety. The concept of a working system of cleaner production technology
and green productivity was also highlighted. The Plan had mentioned the
physical improvement of urban and rural houses by using earthquake resistant
technology.
Use
of information technology in government works was intended to be expanded, and
provisions had been made to give legal recognition to e-information
dissemination. Quality human resource in the science and technology sector was
also in priority.
Preservation
of indigenous technology and its research as well as development of competitive
capability, reduction of the digital divide and prevention of brain drain was
noticed some of the major challenges to the country.
l)
Three
Years Plan (2010 - 2013)
There
was quite satisfactory improvement had been made in adoption of solar energy
technology, but nominal progress in adoption of other sources of alternative
energy. Employment creation was a major criterion in selection of investment projects.
This
Plan emphasized for adoption of information technology in the government
revenue offices including customs. Adoption of new technology in food
laboratory, promotion of technology to minimize the impact of climate change,
transfer of technology through electronic communication media, establishment,
and operation of technology development fund with collaboration of private and
cooperative sectors, technology transfer through economic diplomacy, promotion,
and extension of telecommunication services for technology transfer were some
other attractions of the plan.
Use
of information technology in corporate governance, emphasis on research and development of information
technology, encouragement of construction and operation of electronic Hardware Technology Park, promotion
of information Technology Park,
establishment of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) data center as well as
government integrated data center were other focused areas of the Plan.
There
was emphasis on public-private
partnership for the development of science and technology as well as the study
and use of biotechnology, information technology, Nano technology, nuclear
technology, and space technology. Establishment of space science and technology
center, nuclear technology center, biotechnology research center, and
preparation of Bioinformatics database were a few ambitions of the Plan.
The country adopted a couple of
policies in line to its planning
priorities set by the national periodic plan documents. Foreign Investment and Technology
Transfer act 1982, National Science and Technology Policy 1988, Science and Technology
Policy 1990, Information Technology Policy 2000, Science and Technology Policy
2004, Bio-technology Policy 2006; Rural Energy Policy 2006; Technology Directives
2006 were a couple of major technology related policy initiatives and changes
in the country.
This study has categorized the
sectorial priorities of the periodic plan documents into three main categories-
research and infrastructure development, socioeconomic development, and good
governance and compliance (see Table 1). Research and infrastructure
category included road transport; electricity and power; irrigation;
information and communication facilities; housing and urban development;
environment, science and technology as well as research and development
activities. Education, culture and sports; health, population, water supply and
sanitation; children; youth; senior citizens; natural disaster management;
local development; non-governmental organizations; and human resource
development, agriculture; cooperatives; land reform and management; forest and
soil conversation; tourism and civil aviation; industry; commerce; supply
management; labor management and employment; and transport management are
included in socioeconomic development category.
Decentralization and deregulation;
planning and statistical system development; and implementation, monitoring,
evaluation and reporting included in the category of governance and compliance.
Table
1:
Sectorial priorities concerning technology diffusion in Nepal
|
Plan |
Research
and infrastructure |
Socioeconomic
development |
Governance
and compliance |
|
First 1956–
1961 |
Mineral
and hydropower exploration; technical
institution establishments; investment in technology and capital equipment |
Technical training; provision of
scholarships; emphasis on agricultural and forestry education |
Desire of competent administrative and
technical personnel, formation of technical committees and provision of
advisors |
|
Second 1961
– 1965 |
Focus on
engineering institute establishment and development |
Technical training assurance;
establishment of experimental farms and livestock centers; technical training
assurance |
Technical training to the personnel at
the government agencies, and the Panchayats were made more effective
in technology transfer |
|
Third 1965
– 1970 |
Technical
assistance for transport development, storage, and private sector |
Intended to replace the primitive
technology in agriculture; technical assistance for private sector
development; emphasis on vocational education and adult education |
Considered Panchayats as a
vehicle for technology transfer in social sectors; decentralization
prioritized; coordination among the development programs emphasized |
|
Fourth 1970
– 1975 |
Focus on
vocational and training centers establishment; nucleus seed production
program; food research programs, forestry programs; feasibility survey for
roads; expansion of telecommunication facilities and industrial services |
Foreign trade considered as a mean of
obtaining technical know-how; leader farmer training program; provision of
JTs and JTAs |
Maintaining records of technical
manpower realized; foreign technical assistance sought; labor intensive
technology and indigenous resources emphasized; |
|
Fifth 1975
-1980 |
Emphasis on
strengthening the organizational network; agricultural research and
education; promotion of technology center |
Extensive rural work programs; focus
on manpower development in technical field |
Encouragement of labor intensive
programs and technology |
|
Sixth 1980
- 1985 |
Wish-for the
studies on production and use of bio-gas, solar energy, wind power, and
natural gas; programs on drug research and development; cost effective
technology in building small hydel projects; labor intensive technology
promotion in road building |
Efforts to disseminate technology that
improves the breed of calve, bull, buffalo, goat, sheep, chicken, fish, etc.
Efforts on the improvement of production technology of the cottage
industries; encourage foreign technology and capital in extraction of mineral deposits |
Emphasis on the use of local skills
and technology; use of locally available construction materials;
determination of national science and technology objective, policy and
programs |
|
Seventh 1985
- 1990 |
Intended to
upgrade science and technology capabilities; desire to reduce dependency on
agriculture; shifting attention to industrial sectors |
Desire of high technology and skills
development to expand export; enlarge
international assistance and its participation in the field of science
and technology |
Intended to increase awareness on the
usefulness of science and technology; maximum use of local technology,
know-how and skills emphasized |
|
Eighth 1992
- 1997 |
Institutional
arrangement to familiarize small and cottage industries with technology;
establishment of technical schools; development of national information bank and network
system; computerization of commercial banks; research works on low cost
construction and use of local raw materials |
Agriculture extension program in
outreach; foreign investment and technology transfer for hydropower
development; rural communication services; mineral exploration and
development; social communication program, development of technology for the
poor |
Priority in dissemination of
appropriate technology in agriculture sector; advance technology and
institutional reforms; promotion of technology transfer and replication;
publicity and dissemination of technology |
|
Ninth 1997
- 2002 |
Emphasis on
the development of indigenous technology; development of adaptive and
advanced technology; provision for the establishment of IT park; preparation
of national information infrastructure; twenty years science and technology
prospective plan |
Emphasis on communication and information
technology; adaption of environment conducive and labor intensive
construction technology; use of appropriate technology in foods processing;
rural technology development and dissemination program |
Intention of reform in education;
emphasis on employment oriented technology; environment pollution control
initiatives; encouragement for application of hydro, solar and wind energy |
|
Tenth 2002
- 2007 |
Desire of an
electronic networking of scattered science and technology libraries and
records; national level science and technology information center formation |
Intention of high-tech in rural area;
adoption of agricultural technology, bio-technology, micro and rural
industrial technology, telecommunication and information technology;
environment friendly technology; commercialization of alternative energy
technology |
Priority for the technology that
promotes employment opportunities; use of geographic information system; use
of labor-intensive and environment friendly technology; technology directives
|
|
Eleventh 2007
- 2010 |
Rural
information center; multi-sector technology development; land management
technology; safety management system in aviation; concept of science and
technology university; health management research and technological
development institutions |
Self-employment promotion; employment
opportunities in rural areas; rain water harvesting in rural areas; physical
improvement of urban and rural houses; development of high level human
resources, bio-technology; information technology; institutional capability enhancement and
strengthening program |
Technology dissemination; conditions
to foreign aid- indigenous skill, efficiency and technology; cleaner
production technology, and green productivity; use of information
technology in government works |
|
Twelfth 2010
- 2013 |
Concern to
climate change; telecommunication considered as a major vehicle of technology
transfer; expansion of IT facilities emphasized; concept of electronic
hardware technology park; study and use of bio-technology, Nanotechnology,
nuclear technology, and space technology |
Adoption of solar energy; employment
creation emphasized; technology development fund; Bioinformatics database
preparation |
Emphasis on the adoption of IT across
government revenue offices; priority in food technology adaption; technology
transfer through economic diplomacy; use of information technology in
corporate governance |
Source:
The national periodic plan documents of Nepal
Unplanned efforts of technology
diffusion were dominating until the end of the first half of twentieth century.
Planned efforts started to take place in the country only from the beginning of
the second half of the century (also see Table 2). The interrelationship among the organizations
involved in technology education, training, research and development; national
planners and regulators including national planning commission, ministries, and
departments; supporting industries and intermediaries including
telecommunication and Internet service providers, banking and financial
institutions as well as accessories, parts and support service providers; and
technology suppliers and the technology adopters is considered structural
settings for technology diffusion.
Table
2- Selected
organizations working on technology diffusion
|
From
|
Institutions |
Major
works/projects |
|
1951 |
Department of Agriculture (DOA) |
Food security, agricultural
productivity; screening and standardization of the technologies |
|
1951 |
Department of Industry (DOI) |
Technology
and environment, foreign investment and technology transfer, technology
development; industrial data system improvement and monitoring |
|
1969 |
Center for Economic Development and
Administration (CEDA) |
Socioeconomic and administrative
development assisting/working with the policy makers |
|
1972 |
The Institute of Agriculture and
Animal Science (IAAS) |
Education, research and technology
transfer in the agriculture sector |
|
1972 |
The Institute of Forestry (IOF) |
Education and training to middle and
high level professional in forestry and natural resources management |
|
1972 |
Institute of Medicine (IOM) |
Research, education and services in
the health sector |
|
1972 |
Institute of Engineering (IOE) |
Research, education and training in
engineering; consultancy services |
|
1973 |
Department of Cottage and Small
Industries (DOCSI) |
Business incubation; technology
diffusion and consultation services |
|
1977 |
Research Center for Applied Science
and Technology (RECAST) |
Renewable energy; bio-technology;
appropriate technology; plant science; natural product utilization; low cost
building materials |
|
1982 |
Nepal Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) |
Advancement of science and technology
for all-round development; preservation and further modernization of
indigenous technologies; identification and facilitation of appropriate
technology transfer; promotion of research in science and technology |
|
1989 |
Institute of Science and Technology (IOST) |
Research, education, training,
publications and advisory services in the area of science and technology |
|
1991 |
Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) |
Research on agriculture; coordination,
monitoring and evaluation of agricultural research activities |
|
1992 |
Asia Network for Sustainable
Agriculture and Bio resources (ANSAB) |
Biodiversity conservation and
livelihood improvement in South Asia |
|
1996 |
Industrial Enterprise Development
Institute (IEDI) |
Need-based programs to develop
technical know-how and skills |
|
1998 |
Nepal Telecommunication Authority (NTA) |
Regulating telecommunication sector |
|
1998 |
Micro-Enterprise Development Program (MEDEP) |
Appropriate
technology and quality assurance, micro-enterprise management information
system; entrepreneurship development; and others |
|
2000 |
Department of Food Technology and
Quality Control (DFTQC) |
Development and dissemination of
appropriate food (processing) technology |
|
2005 |
Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment (MOSTE) |
Program of
action on climate change; climate
resilience; technology needs assessment; mountain initiative; environmental
impact assessment; and others |
|
On top of the above mentioned
organizations, the universities, colleges, schools, training institutions and
other governmental and non-governmental organizations were also involved in
the process of technology diffusion in Nepal |
||
Source: The
webpages of respective organizations
Technology diffusion requires a
strong network of reciprocal interdependence among the organizations involved
in the diffusion process. Individual organizations in isolation finds hard to
diffuse technology in an effective and efficient way because of a number of
shortcomings in the areas of technology development, transfer, and adoption
along with difficulties in supporting multiple actors. Organizations may be
working in all the stages of technology diffusion ranging from the technology
development, adoption to the disposition.
The organizations under study were
quite tall and hierarchical instead of flat and networked as required for the
diffusion of technology. The traditional pyramid typestructure of adopting organizations
and all other organizations involved in the area of technology development and
diffusion was not instrumental in transforming the national technology planning
priorities in practices. The plan documents were not acknowledging the urgency
of control and monitoring in the establishment and operationalization of the
organizations in the field of technology. There was absent of priorities about
the carrier and linkage between technology planning priorities and the
technology developing and adopting agencies in the country.
The government of Nepal adopted
liberal economic policy from the very beginning of 1990s, and encouraged
private sector for their active participation in technology development and
transfer; but the government did not regulate the registration and formation of
the organizations in consideration of monitoring thereof. In absence of
technology regulator in the country, haphazard entry or no entry of
organizations into the economy become obvious. Functional areas of the
organizations already established as such could not address and carry the
technology planning priorities to the real adopters of it. Ultimately, the
organizational settings could not assimilate the technology planning priorities
and the subsequent development and diffusion process of it.
3. DISCUSSION
Agriculture sector was one of the
priority areas for technology development and diffusion in Nepal. Most of the
farmers/cultivators were illiterate and they were reluctant/hesitant to be changed
from their traditional system of cultivation to the modern one.
Almost all the development projects
were based on technical assistance of
foreign countries. Consequently, the materials, parts, and expertise
required for the projects were accordingly foreign. Foreign technology transfer
could not promote employment level because of a slow technology absorption
capability of the country.
The plan documents could not
determine the priority areas specifically for locally available technology
development and other supporting areas, if there was any foreign technology
transfer. There was haphazard shift in policy shifts as well, for an instance,
the seventh plan intended to shift focus from an agriculture based economy to
industry based economy in absence of sufficient evidence of agriculture based
economyfailure at one part and in absence of similar evidence for success of
industry based economy on the other.
The ninth plan acknowledged that
traditional technology, skill, and knowledge were disappearing gradually in the
country, which means the past efforts of indigenous technology development were
ineffective despite the continuous attempts of developing it. Without making
reasonable asessment on the disappearing of indigenous technology, the tenth Plan
intended for application of high-tech in
rural area as well that forther contradicted
the commitment made to develop and promote indigenous technology from the
beginning of the planning period.
Promotion of indigenous skill,
efficiency, and technology became the conditions of foreign aid acceptance, but
the donor funded project specifications included internationally standardized
technology, products, and services thereof. Similarly, employment creation had
been made one major criterion in the selection of investment projects, but the
statistics of about 500,000 youths leaving the country every year in search of
employment in foreign countries (BHATTARAI, 2010) could not support the
effectiveness of the government’s policy of acceptance and selection of only
projects that provide employment first.
There was adoption of information
technology in the government revenue offices including customs. However, the
respondents clearly indicated a number unwanted scenarios like delay in customs
clearance, unnecessary and unethical behaviors at the government’s revenue
offices; avoiding the role of independent researchers and professionals in national
technology development processes; prevalence of supremacy of the politicians and
civil servants in the technology policy formulation and implementation; tendency
of the government officials especially high ranking ones just to use their power
instead of the use of their expertise in due course of providing services to
ordinary people and organizations as well as in the areas of implemention of
the policies, acts, rules and
regulations for the development and diffusion of technology.
There was continuous emphasis on the
technology dissemination in absence of provisions of appropriate mechanism for such
dissemination. The mechanisms, known as structural settings and technology
planning priorities were in parallel. There were a few attempts in the area of
institutional capability enhancement during the planned period. However, such
attempts could not establish appropriate and effective linkage across the actors in the process of technology
diffusion. The linkage among the organizations/institutions engaged in
technology assessment, research and development, technology adaptation, and the
supporting service providers would have been facilitating to defuse technology
in the country, if such linkage were established.
Science and technology system in
societies needs to establish a strong link between knowledge creation and
social demands. The link is required to
strengthen the process of addressing social demands and solving their problems. This study argues that
organizational setting is also an interface of technological advancement in a
country because it is linking the initiatives of technology development,
utilization, and diffusion in the society.
The study found that absence of technology regulating mechanisms in
the country;increasing dependence on foreign technology by neglecting the indigenous
one; and emphasis on search of international economic aid than developing the
self-reliance capability were making the parallel standing of the
organizational settings and technology diffusion in Nepal.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study concludes with
identification of structural immunity to technology diffusion in Nepal. In
appropriate balance between the continuous efforts for promotion of indigenous technology at one
part and encouragement to foreign investment and technology transfer on the
other could not bring significant
improvements in the areas of technology development, but the efforts made near
extinction of indigenous technology instead. Contradictory commitments of the
plans like emphasis to the
labor-intensive technology/projectsand encouragement for import of advanced
technology did not follow distinctive areas in the technology development
interventions in the country
There was incongruence between
organizational settings and the periodic planning priorities in absence of
technical organizations cooperation coordination mechanism for technology
development, diffusion, and absorption. The planning priorities could not
enhance the alignment of the structural settings with the requirement for
technology transfer and diffusion in the country. More specifically:
·
Agriculture
sector was immune to technology diffusion. The farmers were habitual with
traditional technology/processes and they were unable to adopt new technology
in absence of socioeconomic compatibility for their efforts and outcomes;
·
The
industrial sector was immune to technology diffusion. There was incompatibility
with hardware, software, brainware, know-how and know-why;
·
Educational
sector was immune to technology diffusion. The instructors and students both
were uncomfortable with the new course contents and teaching pedagogy thereof;
·
Government
sector was immune to technology diffusion. Government officials were more
authoritarian instead of being ethically cooperative consultant;
·
Political
sector was immune to technology diffusion. The political leaders were engaged
in self-flattering and blame games, instead of commitmets and determination to the national
interests of technology development;
·
Compliance
sector was immune to technology diffusion. Good (corporate) governance was a taken
as a compulsion and ethical business behavior was questioning; and
·
Organizational
setting was immune to technology diffusion. Solidarity was mechanistic with a
rigid authority hierarchy in parallel of national planning priorities.
The planned efforts remained unable
to identify what type and level of indigenous technology would be in effect to what extent. There were no clear
demarcations for new technology development and existing technology
enhancement. The technology planning priorities were confined within the plan
documents rather than fitting them into the structural settings. The periodic
planning priorities did not acknowledge the urgency of a strong congruence
between the national technology priorities and the immune organizational
settings in the country.
Technology diffusion is strictly
required to be deliberately coordinated effort of the actors in the structural
settings with their strong interdependence. Unplanned hierarchical structural
settings of mainstream organizations in an economy stands as a barrier in the
process of technology diffusion.
Advancement in telecommunication
facilities and access to the Internet has shadowing the hierarchical taboos in
most of the organizations in real sense. Adoption of information technology
shall help to maintain the congruence at one part and the same will facilitate
in order to overcome the barrier of structural immunity to technology diffusion
on the other part. Immunity of the policy makers and policy adopters to change
only strengthens structural immunity to technology diffusion, which is strongly
opposing the endeavior of technology advancement.
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